A review of nacre-inspired calcium silicate hydrates-based composites

Cement-based materials are the backbone of infrastructure, yet they are inherently brittle and prone to cracking, limiting mechanical performance and long-term durability. Inspired by the hierarchical “brick-and-mortar” architecture of natural nacre, bioinspired cementitious composites have been developed using calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), the primary hydration product of cement, as the fundamental building block. In these systems, C-S-H functions as the stiff “brick”, while polymers act as energy-dissipating “mortar”, collectively enabling significant improvements in flexural strength, fracture toughness, and multifunctionality. This paper reviews the development of nacre-mimicked design, key characteristics of C-S-H building blocks, selection of polymers, fabrication techniques, toughening mechanisms, and representative applications of nacre-inspired C-S-H–based (NI–C-S-H) composites. Key challenges, including large-scale fabrication of NI–C-S-H composites, interfacial bonding, material compatibility, and environmental impacts, are discussed alongside emerging opportunities for scalable manufacturing, improved sustainability, and enhanced functionality. The review concludes with a forward-looking perspective on nacre-inspired composites in enabling next-generation, tough, durable, and sustainable materials for structures and infrastructure.